Development of speech sounds in French in bilingual children: interferences, typical errors and research-based intervention strategies.

In Quebec French, normative data on the phonological development of Francophone children aged 2 to 5 years have long been limited. The work of Brosseau-Lapré and colleagues (2018), MacLeod et al. (2011), Rvachew et al. (2013) and Brosseau-Lapré (2013) now makes it possible to establish reliable benchmarks for understanding typical phonological acquisition.

But what happens when a child learns two languages? How does phonological acquisition in the second language work? And how can we distinguish a difference related to bilingualism from a real phonological disorder?

Phonological acquisition in Quebec French

A phoneme is considered acquired when it is produced correctly in 90% of contexts, across all positions (Brosseau-Lapré et al., 2018). It is in the process of being acquired when it is produced correctly approximately 75% of the time.

Studies in Quebec show the following progression:

Around age 2

• Acquisition: /n/
• Currently being acquired: /m/, /t/, /d/, /p/, /b/

Around age 3

• Acquisition: /m/, /t/, /d/
• Currently being acquired: /z/, /f/, /ɲ/

Around age 4

• Acquisition: /p/, /k/, /g/, /l/, /w/, /f/
• Currently being acquired: /b/, /d/, /ɲ/

Around age 5

• The majority of consonants are acquired.
• Currently being acquired: /s/, /ʃ/ (“ch”), /ʒ/ (“j”), /j/

Intelligibility

According to the ELLAN project (Sylvestre et al., 2020):

• 3 years: 78% of consonants correct
• 4 years: 89%
• Full intelligibility around age 7

For the full profile, see our post:

Development of speech sounds

Phonological acquisition in a bilingual context

When a child learns a second language (L2), they follow the same developmental order as a monolingual child. Sounds acquired later in French, such as /ʃ/ and /ʒ/, remain later even in a child exposed to another language.

Phonological acquisition in L2 is therefore not random: it follows universal sequences, modulated by the phonological characteristics of the first language (L1).

Examples of interference between L1 and French

Interference occurs when the child uses a sound from their L1 to replace a phoneme that is missing in their system. These are expected manifestations of bilingualism.

• Spanish → French : Absence of the contrast /ʃ/–/s/. « chat » → [tʃa] or [sa].
• Arabic-speaking (majority dialects) → French : Absence of /p/. “daddy” → [baba].
• Arabic-speaking (dialects without /v/) → French : /v/ replaced by /f/. "bike" → [felo].
• English speaker → French : Absence of /y/. "moon" → [moon].
• Mandarin → French : /r/ replaced by /l/. « red » → [luʒ].
• Vietnamese → French : Absence of /ʒ/. « jaune » → [zan].

These substitutions are predictable and consistent with the phonological structure of L1, and are not a sign of disorder.

Phonological difference or disorder?

Evidence of a difference related to L1

• Consistent and predictable substitutions according to L1.
• Difficulties arise mainly with phonemes absent from L1.
• Progression observable after 12–24 months of exposure to L2.
• Adequate intelligibility in L1.

Signs of a phonological disorder

• Atypical or inconsistent errors present in all of the child's languages.
• Persistent developmental errors in L1.
• No progress despite exposure.
• Significant impact on communication in both languages.

How to support bilingual phonological acquisition

Promoting the first language

Maintaining L1 supports phonological awareness and facilitates the learning of L2 sounds.

Target the sounds common between L1 and L2

Prioritizing shared phonemes facilitates generalization and supports intelligibility in both languages.

Check the auditory discrimination

Before working on production, ensure that the child discriminates the relevant contrast, particularly via minimal pairs.

Stimulating phonological awareness

It supports the acquisition of new contrasts, especially when the phoneme is absent in L1.

Addressing developmental errors in L1

If a phoneme is not acquired when it should be in L1, it becomes a priority target.

Prioritize the impact on intelligibility

Choose objectives that most improve the child's overall understanding, in all their languages.

Resources for professionals

Speakaboo: https://www.kentalis.com/resources/speakaboo

Free application allowing the evaluation of speech sounds and obtaining multilingual analysis grids.

Speech sound stimulation kit: https://melissafarkouh.com/produit/trousse-complete-des-sons-telechargeable/

A complementary tool to support phonological progress and parental involvement.

Key points

• Phonological acquisition follows a clear developmental trajectory, even in a bilingual context.
• Interferences reflect the phonological properties of L1 and are not signs of disorder.
• A phonological disorder manifests itself in all of the child's languages.
• Interventions must take into account L1, L2 and overall intelligibility.
• Appropriate tools support linguistically appropriate assessment.

References

• Brosseau-Lapré, F. et al. (2018). Phonological development of French-Quebec children.
• MacLeod, A. et al. (2011). Speech acquisition in Canadian French.
• Rvachew, S. et al. (2013). Quebec phonological norms.
• Sylvestre, A. et al. (2020). ELLAN project.
• ASHA. Multicultural Phonology Resources.
• Speakaboo. Phonological analysis tools.
• Brosseau-Lapré, F., & MacLeod, A. (2022). Phonological development and crosslinguistic transfer in bilingual children. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 46 (3), 1257–1274.
• https://cjslpa.ca/files/2022_CJSLPA_Vol_46/No_3/CJSLPA_Vol_46_No_3_2022_1257.pdf
• MacLeod, AAN, Rvachew, S., & Brosseau-Lapré, F. (2020). Phonological acquisition in Canadian French: Normative data and clinical implications. Canadian Journal of Speech-Language Pathology and Audiology, 44 (3), 1200–1215.*
• https://cjslpa.ca/files/2020_CJSLPA_Vol_44/No_3/CJSLPA_Vol_44_No_3_2020_1200.pdf